Group Counselling And School Adjustment Of Under-achieving Primary Pupils.

Group counsellor and School Adjustment of Underachieving Primary Pupils speculative textile of Literature Re put onChallman , Gates , Jersild and Connell (1942 ,. 631 ) claim that version problems arise whenever an individual s need is non met , or whenever his goal is blocked . city block of goals is due to several(prenominal) f shamors including (1 ) physical instruments in the environment (2 ) favorable and societal factors (3 ) economic factors (4 ) individualal defects or limitations and (5 ) incompatible goals . In the context of instruction , some special problems of pupil adjustment were explained by Young (1940 ,br 438 ) could result to the undermenti geniusd responses (1 ) resistance and rebelliousness (2 ) indifference and lack of support (3 ) concluded con cultivateity and passive voice docility and (4 ) removal by means of fantasy These adjustment problems very much result to school under transactionMcCall , Evahn , and Kratzer (1992 ) concludedd the largest study of underachievers done to day of the month , beginning when they were still in school scarce fol minusculeing them into adulthood . As students , these underachievers displayed much(prenominal)(prenominal) characteristics as dis outranked self-concept , low perception of abilities , unrealistic goal setting , lack of diligence , responding impulsively sooner than thoughtfully to assignments , amicable immaturity and shortsighted peer relationships , oppositional and aggressive response to authority , and a style to put one over exc using ups for continued under act rather than accept responsibility and carry a serious commitment to change . HYPERLINK hypertext transfer protocol / vane .questia .com /PM .qst ?a o d 6 (Brophy , 2004 ,. one hundred forty To cope with underachievement , the adoption of these strategies were suggested by Brophy (2004 ,.142 : peer and cross-age tutoring contracts that feature coaction with the student in setting goals and with the p bents in withholding or providing performance contingent rewards , and counseling sessions that testament allow the underachievers to transmit their concerns and pressure them to accept responsibility and commit themselves to realize their goalsGeneral psychological theories facilitate understanding of the divers(a) argonas of education such as training , demand , school adjustment etc these theories span a wide range of places such as psychodynamic , mienal , military personnelitarian , psychobiological and cognitive among m whatsoever differents . In the context of the emergences of multitude counseling to school adjustment of underachieving primary pupils , some theories argon perceived to hold a stronger ground than the others . These theories include the human- spunked theories , extrinsic motivation theory Thorndike s Connectionism come near and other knowledge theoriesA . manistic TheoriesDeveloped in the 1950s and 1960s by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers is an powerful school of psychology - the humanistic theory which asserts that people make rational , conscious decisions shaming their lives , and optimistically suggests that individuals tend to reach toward their sterling(prenominal) potential ( psychology , 2004Long (2000 ,.4 ) claims that the humanistic perspective was vexed by Maslow and highlights the capacity for phylogeny of individuals . It runs counter to the psychodynamic and behavioral psychology , firearm supporting electric shaver-centered systems in educationAccording to Maslow , we are unable to proceed to high levels in front our lower level make are plug . Children who are mainly concerned about their physical require or security areun samely to be concerned with meeting their high , cognitive necessitate at school . This seems quite slick , and a survey by Kleinman et at (1998 ) found that baberen who were fixityly hungry in school were about s evening measure more than seeming to have social and emotional difficulties and twice as likely to have special educational necessitate . Although the specificity of such findings is probably confounded by a account of effects , setting up breakfast clubs has been sh knowledge to be associated with satisfying improvements in some children s attainments . HYPERLINK hypertext transfer protocol / vane .questia .com /PM .qst ?a o d 9 (Long , 2000 ,. 110 Klausmeier and Ripple (1971 ,. 314 ) claims that Maslow conjecture a comprehensive theory of motivation that proves to be usable in understanding human behavior and the individuals motivational states by fetching to bulgeher ideas that reflect the importance of human inevitably in energizing and directing behavior . Maslow listed these needs into 5 sets , which are as follows : 1 . physiological , 2 . guard duty , 3 . love and be bulkying , 4 . respect , self-actualization and 5 . the need to know and understand There are at least five sets of goals which we may call basic needs These are briefly physiological , safety , love , esteem , and self-actualization . In addition , we are motivated by the relish to achieve or maintain the various conditions upon which these basic gaietys rest period and by certain intellectual desires . These basic goals are cerebrate to each other , being arranged in a hierarchy of prepotency . This means that the most prepotent goal will control consciousness and will lend itself to organize the recruitment of the various capacities of the organism . The less prepotent needs are minimized , even forgotten or denied . plainly when a need is sensibly healthy well-provided , the next prepotent ( higher ) need emerges , in turn to dominate the conscious life and to serve asthe center of organization of behavior , since gratified needs are non active motivators . Thus , man is a perpetually scatty animal . Ordinarily the satisfaction of these wants is not alto get goingher inversely exclusive but is only a tendency . The mean(a) member of our society is most often partially satisfied and partially unsatisfied in all of his wants HYPERLINK hypertext transfer protocol / web .questia .com /PM .qst ?a o d 9 (Maslow , 2000 br. 3 . When a person s basic needs are not met and his desires are thwarted by seats beyond his /her control whence adjustment problems are manifested . Maslow said that needs have to be met for the individual to be satisfied in school if a child is not able to fulfill his /her need for belongingness he /she may have adjustment problems like being move back , extremely shy and quiet which in turn contributes to his /her being not accepted by the mannikinAccording to Demorest (2005 ,.2 , Carl Rogers saw humanness as defined by one s subjective experience of the orbit which ascertains an individual s path in life . In this perspective , humans are not seen as helplessly buffeted about by forces beyond their control , whether these forces are from their unconscious mind minds or from their environments . An essential fact of humanness in the view of theorists from the phenomenological approach is that individual persons have free will to gibe their own course in life , and that this course will be based on their own subjective experiences . individually individual views the world from a unique frame of elongation , and it is this frame of reference that must be understood in to understand the person . Rogers himself did not deny that outside forces fucking have a powerful limit on the person , nor that a person might erect defenses against unwanted self-knowledge . But he argued that these influences only move us away from our honest selves , and that there is within each of us an inner guiding to bring that true self to fruition , just as there is within an acorn the directive to beat an oak tree HYPERLINK http /network .questia .com /PM .qst ?a o d 4 (Demorest , 2005 ,. 3 These humanistic theories were viewed by William James as subscribing to child-centered approach in education where he urged educators to familiarize themselves with the needs and interests of their students so that teaching practices female genitals be geared at making the associations and connections necessary to ensure effective discipline HYPERLINK http / web .questia .com /PM .qst ?a o d 8 (Pajares , 2003 ,. 55As it would be for Dewey , the school was for James especially suited to image a student s character and impart parliamentary set - only by sharing our individual experiences and pussing our knowledge [is] it feasible to gain a better grasp of things , devise betters ship canal of living together , and move toward a more democratic , tolerant , and humane world HYPERLINK http / entanglement .questia .com /PM .qst ?a o d 8 (Pajares , 2003 ,. 55 . ground on the humanistic theory of James individuals may develop adjustment problems when they do not take charge of their own subjective experiences . In school , students are required to complete work that have been prescribed by the states education requirements and in mainstream schools , children are asked to do all the tasks in a identical manner in the same amount of time . When low playing students begin to notice that that they have difficulty in completing the assigned tasks compared to their classmates , they may exhibit behavior like malingering , aggressive behavior or even locomote withdrawn beca procedure they do not understand why they are different from the restB . Extrinsic penury TheoryThe Gestalt perspective on motivation closely ties it to molar behavior , that is , behavior that is purposive , enjoin towards a goal (Leonard , 2002 ,. 131 , and links it with the application of external rewards such as recognition , encouragements and praises , where education is reinforced . Behavioral principles are used to ensure substantial and intangible rewards to influence schooling behaviorsThe coning paradigm of cognitivism maintains that goals are a central fraction to the system that results to the use of cognitive processes models such as the GOMS , which was create by soreell , Card and Moran (Leonard , 2002 ,. 79 . GOMS , which stands for Goals , Operators Methods and Selection , is a method that addresses the need for training and performance activities to be goal-oriented and to directly influence learner motivation to achieve the goal . Due to the overtake debate over the claim that rewards realize only short movement in motivation or performance , but weaken students intrinsic interest in the activity , several studies were made . It became get to that attempts to address questions about the grab use of rewards require circumspection to the nature of the rewards , the ways in which they are introduced and delivered , and the student outcomes under consideration (Brophy , 2004 ,. 158Hence , according to Brophy (2004 ,. 162 , extrinsic rewards do not undermine intrinsic motivation but supports its maturation . This can be achieved done different methods such as the provision of unannounced rewards following task completion , the use of rewards as informative feedback rather than control mechanisms , and putting tension on social rewards over sensible rewards , and delivery of rewards in ways that encourage students to value the carry outment being rewarded . The achievement advantages of student team knowledge methods reside in their base reward and individual accountability features , not in their hawkish featuresLike other forms of cooperative information , student team nurture methods have produced corroborative effects on outcomes other than achievement . These methods promote friendships and prosocial fundamental interaction among group mates as well as positive outcomes on individual affective variables such as self-esteem , academic self-confidence , and liking for the class and for classmates . HYPERLINK http /network .questia .com /PM .qst ?a o d 2 (Brophy , 2004 ,. 175 Alderman (1999 ,.229 ) maintains that for extrinsic rewards to optimally facilitate the acquire process , it must include : the recognition of a florilegium of competencies the avoidance of the scarcity of rewards , where only a few students get all the recognition focusing the rewards on improvement rather than on ability and the use of extrinsic rewards only to get individuals started on an activity , then gradually diminishing system , shifting the focus to a more intrinsic one where possibleThe extrinsic motivation theory posits that learning can be reinforced with external rewards , and that students can be motivated to accomplish their tasks by giving rewards commensurate to the quality of their work at bottom this framework , it is likely that students who are not rewarded for their efforts in learning required solids then they may develop apathy towards learning . When students try as much as they can to learn and comply with the tasks in school but still deceive to get good grades they pass away frustrated and end up not trying to learn anymore . This is a form of adjustment problem , wherein students cannot cope with the demands of the schoolC . Thorndike s Theories of Laws of Effect , Readiness and ExerciseEdward leeward Thorndike proposed a behaviorist learning theory which regards thought and learning as based upon a highly complex fit logical system , having similarities with the structure and possible working of the human brain . This approach , called connectionism accounts for a range of complex functions and departs from pure cognitive s in terms of a clear sequence of logical processes (Long , 2000 ,. 41 . According to this theory , learning proceeds through the close associations among stimuli and responses without any regard to the unobservable internal mental states . Thus , the connection between the stimulus - response association guides all behavior , including learning . Connectionism follows three basic fairnesss the law of effect , the law of grooming , and the law of execution . The Law of Effect states that responses to stimuli start out habits when the effect of the response is recognise to the organism (Leonard , 2002 ,br 36 . Thus , the likelihood of students repeating a response is greater when followed by a positive reinforcement than if the response is followed by a detrimental reinforcement . In effect , educators perceive reinforcing good behavior as effective and punishing bad behavior as ineffectiveAny act which in a given situation produces satisfaction becomes associated with that situation , so that when the situation recurs the act is more likely than before to recur also . Conversely , any act which in a given situation produces discomfort becomes dissociated from that situation , so that when the situation recurs the act is less likely than before to recur . HYPERLINK http / web .questia .com /PM .qst ?a o d 5262081 (Woodworth , 1948 ,. 52The law of effect also states that the degree of the redolence of the event is not as much a factor to the effectiveness of the learned behavior as simply fling the reward itself . This law is closely related to Hull s postulate regarding habit strength . This law and the other two laws of connectionism bring Thorndike to conclude that intelligence can be measured by how many connections have been learned by the organism . HYPERLINK http /network .questia .com /PM .qst ?a o d 3 (Leonard , 2002 ,. 110 )The Law of bent maintains the existence of a mountain range of responses from the organism as it pursues an external reward / goal . If at any point the chain of responses is blocked , frustration and provocation on the part of the organism takes place . The vocabulary of Theories , Laws and creations of psychological science (1998 ,. 398 ) defines it as when a stimulus - response unit is create to wear , it yields a satisfying effect as long as nothing interferes with its conducting action . Hence according to this law , when neurons are compelled to conduct impulses they are either ready or unready . If they are ready to conduct , it is pleasant . If they are unready to conduct , it is unpleasant (Perkins Wheeler and Crowell , 1932 ,. 362The Law of exercise states that the more connections become stimulated over time , the stronger (and more habitual ) they become , and vice versa (Leonard , 2002 ,. 36 . In essence , the law of exercise states that other things being equal , the ingeminate occurrence of any act makes that behavior easier to perform and is less vulnerable or subject to error That is , Practice makes perfect (Roeckelein , 1998 ,. 174 .

Thus , the more often an organism repeats a response to a token set of stimuli , the more likely the organism will become intelligent and able to repeat the task again successfully , more quickly , and with fewer errors . Thus , learning does not really stick or become strengthened through one trial , but through several repeated trials over time HYPERLINK http / entanglement .questia .com /PM .qst ?a o d 3 (Leonard 2002 ,. 40Thorndike s laws of learning that of effect , readiness and exercise all point to the assumption that an individual can learn the material if the material is rewarding , it is in an appropriate level for the individual and the individual has the opportunity to practice the material . Thus , when all of these conditions are not present or one of it is absent , problem behaviors may occur that stand for adjustment issues . Like when a low performing child is given a challenging tasks which may be rewarding but it is beyond the level of readiness of the child , no matter how many time the child practice with the tasks , the child will be frustrated and have problems learning the material D . Other Learning TheoriesEnactivism (constructivism ) is primarily a social phenomenon associated with collaborative learning , whose main principle is co-emergence - the product of the interaction and communication occurring within a collaborative and discovery learning environment of learners , where stronger and weaker partners help each other in the learning process (Leonard , 2002 ,. 64In collaborative learning , learners share knowledge , pool resources and interact within the group to produce more complete and robust results than an individual working alone and obtain positive changes and better learning through the continuous interaction among learners . It is founded on the social development theory of Lev Vygotsky which postulates that social development and interaction play a fundamental role in the development of the individual learner s cognitive abilities including learning and communicating (Leonard , 2002 ,. 31Collaborative learning has reaped a good following and is used to justify tangled grouping in schools . Based on social development theory individuals learn through interactions with other people , and this is ostensible in the school setting . But what is often lose is that when low performing children is placed in a regular group of students and assume that they will learn from each other may be too much . Low performing children needs individualized instruction and without which may result to attention seeking behavior , restlessness passivity and even reverse to do the tasks which are indicative of adjustment problems ReferencesHYPERLINK http / web .questia .com /PM .qst ?a o d Alderman , M K (1999 . indigence for Achievement : Possibilities for Teaching and Learning . Mahwah , NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates . Retrieved July 21 2006 , from Questia database http /www .questia .com /PM .qst ?a o dHYPERLINK http /www .questia .com /PM .qst ?a o d 0 Brophy , J (2004 . Motivating Students to Learn . Mahwah , NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum AssociatesHYPERLINK http /www .questia .com /PM .qst ?a o d 1 Psychology (2004 . In The capital of South Carolina Encyclopedia (6th ed . pertly York : Columbia University PressHYPERLINK http /www .questia .com /PM .qst ?a o d 9 Demorest , A (2005 . Psychology s Grand Theorists : How Personal Experiences do Professional Ideas . Mahwah , NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum AssociatesHYPERLINK http /www .questia .com /PM .qst ?a o d 8 Fall , K . A Holder , J . M Marquis , A (2003 . supposed Models of Counseling and Psychotherapy . New York : Brunner-RoutledgeHYPERLINK http /www .questia .com /PM .qst ?a o d Gates , A . I Jersild , A . T , McConnell , T . R Challman , R . C (1942 . educational Psychology . New York : MacmillanHYPERLINK http /www .questia .com /PM .qst ?a o d 3725630 Harriman ,. L (Ed (1946 . Twentieth hundred Psychology : Recent Developments in Psychology . New York : philosophical LibraryHYPERLINK http /www .questia .com /PM .qst ?a o d Jonassen , D H Land , S . M (Eds (2000 . Theoretical Foundations of Learning Environments . Mahwah , NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum AssociatesHYPERLINK http /www .questia .com /PM .qst ?a o d Klausmeier , H J Ripple , R . E (1971 . Learning and gentleman Abilities : educational Psychology . New York : Harper RowHYPERLINK http /www .questia .com /PM .qst ?a o d 0 Leonard , D C (2002 . Learning Theories , A to Z . Westport , CT : Oryx PressHYPERLINK http /www .questia .com /PM .qst ?a o d Lindgren , H C (1962 . studyal Psychology in the Classroom (2nd ed . New York outhouse Wiley SonsHYPERLINK http /www .questia .com /PM .qst ?a o d 4 Long , M (2000 . The Psychology of Education . capital of the United Kingdom : Routledge FalmerHYPERLINK http /www .questia .com /PM .qst ?a o d 3725630 Maslow , A . H (1946 . A Theory of Human Motivation . In Twentieth Century Psychology Recent Developments in Psychology , Harriman ,. L (Ed (pp . 22-47 New York : Philosophical LibraryHYPERLINK http /www .questia .com /PM .qst ?a o d 6 Maslow , A . H (2000 . The Maslow Business Reader (D . C . Stephens , Ed . New York WileyMayer , R . E (2003 . 5 E . L . Thorndike s put up Contributions to educational Psychology . InEducational Psychology : A Century of Contributions , Zimmerman , B . J Schunk , D . H (Eds (pp . 113-151 . Mahwah , NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum AssociatesHYPERLINK http /www .questia .com /PM .qst ?a o d McCombs , B . L (1994 . 4 Strategies for Assessing and Enhancing Motivation : Keys to Promoting Self-Regulated Learning and Performance . In Motivation : Theory and Research , Drillings , M (Ed (pp . 49-65 . Hillsdale , NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum AssociatesHYPERLINK http /www .questia .com /PM .qst ?a o d Mowrer , R . R Klein , S . B (Eds (2001 . Handbook of Contemporary Learning Theories . Mahwah , NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum AssociatesHYPERLINK http /www .questia .com /PM .qst ?a o d Owen , R . B (1998 . Personality : A al Approach : Theories , Research , Major Controversies , and Emerging Findings . Mahwah , NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum AssociatesHYPERLINK http /www .questia .com /PM .qst ?a o d 9 Pajares , F (2003 . 2 William James : Our Father Who Begat Us . In Educational Psychology : A Century of Contributions , Zimmerman , B . J Schunk , D H (Eds (pp . 41-62 . Mahwah , NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum AssociatesHYPERLINK http /www .questia .com /PM .qst ?a o d 1 Roeckelein J . E (1998 . Dictionary of Theories , Laws , and Concepts in Psychology Westport , CT : Greenwood PressHYPERLINK http /www .questia .com /PM .qst ?a o d 4691573 Schilpp ,. A (Ed (1939 . The Philosophy of jakes Dewey (1st ed . Evanston , IL Northwestern UniversityHYPERLINK http /www .questia .com /PM .qst ?a o d 7709143 Schmuck , R . A Schmuck ,. A (1974 . A Humanistic Psychology of Education : Making the School Everybody s House (1st ed . Palo Alto , CA : National Press BooksHYPERLINK http /www .questia .com /PM .qst ?a o d Thorndike , E L (1912 . Education : A First Book . New York : MacmillanHYPERLINK http /www .questia .com /PM .qst ?a o d 3829296 Thorndike , E L (1931 . Human Learning (R . M . Elliott , Ed . New York : CenturyHYPERLINK http /www .questia .com /PM .qst ?a o d Weiner , B (1980 . Human Motivation . Hillsdale , NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum AssociatesHYPERLINK http /www .questia .com /PM .qst ?a o d 6569253 Wheeler , R . H Perkins , F . T (1932 . Principles of Mental Development : A Text-Book in Educational Psychology . New York : Thomas Y . CrowellHYPERLINK http /www .questia .com /PM .qst ?a o d 5262016 Woodworth , R S (1948 . Contemporary Schools of Psychology (Revised ed . New York Ronald PressHYPERLINK http /www .questia .com /PM .qst ?a o d Young , K (1940 . Personality and Problems of Adjustment . New York : F . S . Crofts .Zimmerman , B . J Schunk , D . H (Eds (2003 . Educational Psychology A Century ofContributions . Mahwah , NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum AssociatesConceptual Framework Study Habits Self - Concept Academic Performance (Dependent Variables ) Group Counseling(Independent Variable )Characteristics of the Group Counseling Program(Length , Objectives and Approach ...If you want to get a full essay, order it on our website: Ordercustompaper.com

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