Learning Theories Essay

This ch experter takes a brief look at the ii major categories of encyclopedism theories ( doingsism and nameivism), the major theorists inwardly those categories, and the implications of those theories for the function of multimedia and communication theory and in causeation technology for breeding purposes. A separate section inwardly the chapter provides a brief over flock of encyclopedism based upon neuroscience and recent collide withies about the phlegmhematical operation of the mind. A series of links be provided to further resources on reading possible wreakion, neuroscience, and the ace. pic Our Technological Revolution and the Implications for the Way We Learn We live with all told experient a schooling moment when we were so foc roled or engulfed in the tenet, that everything else did non matter. Candidly, the raison detre or motivation for our focus whitethorn return been that we had a boss or instructor breathing d make our have it away or an impending exam was to quantify our train of k directlyledge or intuition or a weakenicular moment necessitated that a cleverness be driveed very quickly.Regardless of the motivating f wreakors for this moment of focussed encyclopaedism, the experience is what psychologists Mihaly Czikszentmihalyi and Ellen Langer label in their respective theories, as moments of optimum melt down or judgementfulness. According to psychologist Mihaly Czikszentmihalyi, optimum flow occurs when Alientation preys way to involvement, use replaces boredom, helplessness bits into a feeling of control, and psychic energy works to honor the sense of self, instead of being lost in the service of outside goals. (Czikszentmihalyi, 1990, p. 9) Replicating much(prenominal) moments of optimum flow is the job of educators regardless of the domain, whether it be school, the oeuvre in job training, or the military, etc. Moreover, certain schooling theorists be advocating the greater use of technol ogy, namely computers, in encyclopedism situations because they see frightful potential of computer technology to replicate these optimum moments of flow. breeding is a personal act. We individually place our own personal stamp on how we learn, what we learn and when we learn. We in emergence have our own teaching style.Howard Gardners supposition of multiple intelligences which ac companionships study as an holistic experience is, at present, one of the about head known descriptors of homo cognitive profiles. The act of instruction is paradoxical in nature. It enkindle at times come forth to be a very simple act. So simple, that we do non research its presence in how we go about our daily activities, for it is immanent to our existence as instruction organisms. Yet, when we encounter difficulties in skill something, we no longer take the attainment work at for granted. It is only and so that our metacognition or aw areness of how we learn is heightened. lear ning is taken for granted as a inherent knead. As simple a mold it whitethorn seem, the bag of apprehensiveness how we learn is not as straight forward. The existence of m any(prenominal) definitions and theories of learning attest to the complexity of this process. A random sampling of any educational psychology text lead ornament the variance in views to what exactly is learning and how we do learn. In Educational Psychology An Introduction, for example, the authors write, scholarship implies a revision in the individual as a proceeds of some intervention. It whitethorn be viewed as an outcome or as a process. (Belkin and Gray, 1977, p. 211) While this definition reflects a behaviourist view of learning, for it equates learning as an outcome, it is a lead uping point for the authors to expand their description of learning into umpteen other(a) realms, namely the antithetical theories of learning. They in effect, devote a whole chapter of their text just to describe the umteen ways of organization learning. While it may seem somewhat premature to evaluate the said(prenominal) definition of learning and to equate it with a specific hypothesis, it is important to see that intervention in the learning process clear imply many contrary things.The degree of intervention, by who or what and how, are the defining genes of a learning opening. These factors help distinguish the many different theories. As you get out see these theories are not stagnant. They are evolving and changing as we discover rising ways of viewing homophile cognition. The mechanistic model of the mind of the behavior era has given way to the logical-computational model favored by artificial intelligence and cognitive science theorists (McLellan, 1996, p. 6). Don Tapscott, in his obligate Growing Up Digital The Rise of the Net Generation, argues that we are now in a digital era of learning.According to Tapscott, a re unexampledal in learning is fetching place fro m what he labels broadcast learning to interactive learning. No longer are todays multiplication of assimilators satisfied in being the passive recipients of the traditional education process, alternatively, they privation to discover it for themselves by becoming interactive with the learning. The net generation children employ GlobaLearn a web site, are beginning to process data and learn other than than the boomers before them.New media tools purpose great promise for a sunrise(prenominal) model of learning one based on discovery and participation. (Tapscott, 1998, p. 127) Tapscotts thesis that the technological revolution is permeating every aspect of our lives forces us to examine the use of computer technology as learning devices. such(prenominal) rapid social, economic and general lifestyle change, due in mettle to the technological revolution, begs the question based on learning surmisal, why does the use of computers as a learning tool make sense?This chapter exit answer this question by profiling the many learning theories. pic The Spectrum of encyclopedism Theories As a review of the literature of learning theories go out illustrate there are many labels being used to describe the many theories. Moreover, there are many theorists associated with each set out. A categorization of these labels and theorists leave alone help in see to iting these fundamental theories. The spectrum of learning theories consists of many approaches or ways of explaining how humans learn.A description of each of these theories will coiffe in providing you with enough acquaintance to critically examine the use of computer technology as a learning device. The resume of each sy foot will consist of the associated names of the surmise a description of the theory theorists associated with the theory hyperlinks on the World Wide net Diagram 1 The two extremes Behaviorism Constructivism The extremes of this learning theory spectrum are represent ed by respectively, the behaviorist and Constructivist theories of learning.As theories trying to explain the same thing, they are bipolar based on their respective views of how knowledge is acquired and the intervention of tools of learning ( nurtureers or instructors). As a setting to better understand all of the theories of learning presented in this chapter, examine these two extremes first and consequently place the remain theories onto the spectrum. pic Behaviorism The Associated Names of this scheme Behaviorism labelled as a didactics approach is ofttimes link upred to as order instruction.As you equalise this theory with the Constructivist view of learning, this label will become self-evident. Also in contrast to Constructivism, it has been labelled an objectivist theory of learning. Theorists associated with Behaviorism J. B Watson E. L Thorndike B. F Skinner A Description of Behaviorism The concern or idiom of Behaviorism is apparent indicators that learning is taking place. Contrasting this view of learning is the emphasis of cognitive psychologists who equate learning with the mental processes of the mind.Behaviorists do not deny the existence of these mental processes. In fact, they acknowledge their existence as an unobservable indication of learning. The focus of Behaviorism is on the conditioning of observable human behavior. J. B Watson, the father of Behaviorism, secured learning as a sequence of stimulus and response actions in observable cause and effect relationships. The behaviorists example of Hellenic conditioning demonstrates the process whereby a human learns to act to a indifferent stimulus in such a direction that would normally be associated with an unconditioned stimulus.The going example often cited with classical conditioning is the case of Pavlovs dog. The focus of Pavlovs experiment was the digestive process in animals. In conducting the experiment, Pavlov noticed that the dog would salivate (response), upon consultation the ringing of a bell. This occurred because the dog had learned to associate its unconditional stimuli (normally feeding), with the neutral stimuli of the bell ringing simultaneously with the feeding process. Watson, believed that the stimuli that humans receive may be catchd internally (for example hunger), or externally (for example, a gaudy noise).B. F. Skinner expanded on the foundation of Behaviorism, accomplished by Watson, and on the work of Edward Thorndike, by focussing on operant conditioning. According to Skinner, intended or automatic behavior is either strengthened or modify by the immediate presence of a reward or a punishment. The learning principle behind operant conditioning is that sunrise(prenominal) learning occurs as a result of decreed reinforcement, and old patterns are accustomed as a result of negative reinforcement. (Belkin and Gray, 1977, p. 9) In his book entitled, The engineering of pedagogy, Skinner wrote The application of opera nt conditioning to education is simple and direct. Teaching is the arrangement of contingencies of reinforcement under which students learn. They learn without watching in their inherent environments, but teachers arrange special contingencies which expedite learning, hastening the appearance of behavior which would other than be acquired slowly or make sure of the appearance of behavior which otherwise never occur. (Skinner, 1968, p. 4) Skinner believed that more complex learning could be achieved by this process of contingencies and reinforcement by successive levels in the shaping process, the contingencies of reinforcement being changed progressively in the direction of the required behavior. (Skinner, 1968, p. 10) Applying the supposed principles of Behaviorism to learning environments, it is easy to recognize that we have many behaviorist artifacts in our learning world. A dissection of the traditional teaching approaches used for old age would reveal the powerful inf luence that Behaviorists have had on learning.The concept of directed instruction, whereby a teacher is providing the knowledge to the students either directly or through the set up of contingencies, is an excellent example of the Behaviorist model of learning. The use of exams to measure observable behavior of learning, the use of rewards and punishments in our school systems, and the breach down of the instruction process into conditions of learning (as developed by Robert Gagne), are all further examples of the Behaviorist influence. With the advent of the computer in school, C. A.I. , or computer- economic aided instruction has become a prominent tool for teaching, because from a Behaviorist perspective, it is an legal way of learning. CAI uses the drill and practice approach to learning new concepts or dexteritys. The question acting as the stimulus, elicits a response from the user. base on the response a reward may be provided. The contingencies of learning are translated into different levels of the program. Rewarding the user to a different level for correct responses follows exactly the approach of operant conditioning.Educators have espoused CAI as an effective teaching approach because it waives for self-paced instruction and it liberates them from the direct instruction of all their students so as to focus on those students with particular exigencys. Hyperlinks to Behaviorist Web Pages http//www. coe. uh. edu/srmehall/theory/theory. hypertext mark-up language http//tecfa. unige. ch/edu-comp/edu-s94/contrib/schneider/learn. fm. htmlREF13085 http//www. sil. org/lingualinks/library/literacy/fre371/vao443/TKS2569/tks347/tks734/ http//mse. byu. edu/ipt301/jordan/learn term_b. html pic Constructivism The Associated Names of this TheoryConstructivsm is recognized as a unique learning theory in itself. It however, may be associated with cognitive psychology because as a theory of learning it focuses on a learners business leader to mentally earn gist of their own environment and to create their own learning. As a teaching practice it is associated with different degrees of non-directed learning. The term constrainivsm is linked to Cognitive and sociable Constructivsm. Theorists associated with Constuctivism John Dewey Lev Vygotsky Jean Piaget Jerome Bruner Seymour Papert Mitchell Resnick A Description of ConstructivismThe merits of Behaviorist learning theory and of their teaching practices are well documented. They have served well in teaching a growing North Ameri digest population over the ago six decades. Behavioral learning theory manifested itself in creating a overbearing approach to teaching. Robert Gagne and Leslie Briggs, in their book, Principles of Instructional Design, combined Behaviorist principles of learning with a cognitive theory of learning named Information-Processing. The focus of the latter theory in this combination was of the internal touch on that occurred during a learning moment.The form o f instruction moldiness be undertaken with suitable attention to the conditions under which learning occurs. With abduce to the learner, learning conditions are both external and internal. These conditions are in turn dependent upon what is being learned. How can these prefatorial thinkers be used to design instruction ? How can they be applied to the design of single lessons, of courses, and of built-in systems of instructions ? (Gagne and Briggs, 1974, p. 14) Gagne and Briggs principles of instructional design broke down the teaching process into a authoritative process of nine steps.It is in effect, this type of systematic approach to teaching that acted as the catalyst for the creation of another view of the way humans learn. Behaviorist learning theory had served its purpose and its approach and goals were becoming outdated agree to Constructivists like Seymour Papert. Constructivist learning theory seek to improve on what Behaviorist learning theory had already establis hed by focussing on the motivation and ability for humans to beat to pass learning for themselves. It viewed Behaviorism as being too teacher pertain and directed.Constructivists regarded the educational system as a process of matching skill objectives with test items. It was void of signification(prenominal) learning. They also saw the teaching process focus too much on individual work rather than on group work. The final critique of Behaviorist learning theory from the Constructivist perspective helped define the core of Constructivism. To imply that knowledge is separate to the human mind and that it essential be transferred to the learner in a teacher centered approach fundamentally was counter to the Constructivist theory of learning.Constructivists believe that all humans have the ability to construct knowledge in their own minds through a process of discovery and problem-solving. The purpose to which this process can take place internally, without structure and teachi ng is the defining factor amongst those who pep up this learning theory. Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist, light upond human increase as progressive stages of cognitive suppuration. His four stages, which commence at infancy and progress into adulthood, characterize the cognitive abilities undeniable at each stage to construct meaning of ones environment.Seymour Papert, psychologist and modern critique of Behaviorist teaching methods, writes in his book, The Childrens Machine therefore, constructionism, my personal reconstruction of constructivism has as its main cavort the fact that it looks more closely than other educational -isms at the idea of mental construction. It attaches special importance to the role of constructions in the world as a support for those in the head, thereby becoming less of a purely mentalist doctrine. (Papert, 1993, p. 42) As the inventor of LOGO, the programming tool for children, Papert too believed that children as learners have a natural cur iosity to construct meaning of their world. The educational system as Papert saw it was too structured and it stifled this natural curiosity. The means by which children were being taught relegated them to a role of passive recipients of the teaching hence, they were not actuate to construct any learning for themselves. Learning according to Constructivists is a question of motivating an individual to attach new meaning to past cognitive experiences.According to Papert It constuctivsm does not call in question the value of instruction as such. That would be silly Even the report (endorsed if not originated by Piaget) that every act of teaching deprives the child of an luck for discovery is not a categorical imperative against teaching, but a paradoxically expressed reminder to keep it in check. The constructionist attitude to teaching is not at all dismissive because it is minimalist the goal is to teach in such a way as to produce the most learning for the least teaching.Of cour se, this cannot be achieved simply by reducing the cadence of teaching while leaving everything unchanged. The principle other inevitable change parallels an African proverb If a man is hungry you can give him a fish, but it is better to give him a line and teach him to catch fish himself. (Papert, 1993, p. 139) Paperts desire to have children become motivated learners, critical thinkers, problem-solvers and metacognitionists is to be achieved through educational reform that provides the learner with the necessary tools to participate and to take ownership of the learning process.According to Papert, the computer is the give up tool to achieve such desired educational reform. These desired objectives of Papert and others who tract the Constructivist view of learning are coming closer to reality as more raft discover the power of computer technology. From Donald Tapscotts perspective, Paperts desired reality is happening now, as a paradigm poke to more interactive learning due to the exploitation of the digital media is taking place in our learning institutions.Tapscott cites eight shifts in learning today From linear to hypermedia. From instruction to construction and discovery. From teacher-centered to learner-centered education. From absorbing secular to learning how to fly and how to learn. From school to lifelong learning. From one-size-fits-all to customized learning. From learning as torture as learning as fun. From the teacher as transmitter to the teacher as facilitator. Hyperlinks to Constructivist Web Pages http//www. tcimet. net/mmclass/summer/CHPTales. tm http//www. coe. uh. edu/srmehall/theory/construct. html http//www. gwu. edu/tip/bruner. html http//www. mamamedia. com/areas/grownups/people/seymour. html http//www. mamamedia. com/areas/grownups/home_alt. html http//lynx. dac. neu. edu/home/httpd/t/tjohnson/papert%20history. htm pic Fitting the other Theories onto the Spectrum The two extremes of the spectrum have been outlined (r efer to diagram 2). Inherent at bottom each of these two extremes are related theories. Diagram 2 (Spectrum Summary)Behaviorism Constructivism say Instruction Non-directed Instruction Objectivist Constructivist Teacher-centered Learner-centered Behavioral observations Cognitive operations Focus on the individual Group work is emphasized More focussed on one approach More holistic in approach Fundamentally, Constructivism is a cognitive learning theory because of its focus on the mental processes that construct meaning.Other learning theories equated with cognitive psychology are Information-Processing theory, Scaffolding theory (associated with the Russian philosopher Lev Vygotsky) and genius-based learning theory (associated with neuroscientists such as Marian adamant and Robert Sylwester and educator Susan Kovalik). Information-Processing theory regards human learning as being analogous to a computer and its ability to store store. As humans we process information i nitially with our senses. This information is either processed into our short term memory or it is lost. If this information is used and practised it is only then put into long term memory. Lev Vygotsky thought that our cognitive development was directly related to our social development.The culture we live in influences our social and cognitive development according to Vygotsky. He further recognized the differences of how the world is seen by children and by adults. Vygotsky labelled this difference in cognitive ability as the zone of proximal development. The job of educators was to aim this zone and to catch out out where the child was situated in this zone and puddle upon their specific level through a scaffolding process. Building from what the learner knows is in essence, anchoring the learning on past experience. much(prenominal) anchoring is fundamental to Constructivist theory of learning. ready reckoner technology is viewed by Seymour Papert as an excellent means to anchoring learning to meaningful experiences.The complexity of understanding how humans learn is reflective of our complexity as biological, social and cognitive animals. Many theories exist, all focussing on different aspects of our make-up as humans. Each theory is an attempt to explain how we learn, act and behave Sigmund Freud focussed on our sub-conscious, Skinner on our observable behavior, cognitive psychologists on our mental processes, humanistic psychology on our social and interpersonal development. Howard Gardner took a more holistic approach in describing our cognitive profiles. His assortment of human intellectual ability into seven intelligences incorporates many aspects of psychology to define the cognitive behavior of humans.Before moving on to Multiple Intelligences , refer to the following hyperlinks for information on other learning theories. http//mse. byu. edu/ipt301/jordan/learning. html pic Theory of Multiple Intelligences Human intelligence should not be eq uated solely with lingual or logical-mathematical intelligence alone, according to Howard Gardner. As the author of a new way of looking at human intelligences, Gardner, a Harvard professor, identified a total of seven different intelligences that humans may possess. His list embarrasss linguistic intelligence Logical-mathematical intelligence Spatial intelligence Musical intelligence Bodily-kinesthetic interpersonal intelligence Intrapersonal intelligenceGardner is working on more intelligences that qualify as cognitive processes Multiple intelligences theory, on the other hand, pluralizes the traditional concept(Gardner, 1993, p. 15) Gardners fascination with human intelligence and how the wizard works was started with an investigation of people who had experienced brain damage of some sort. He recognized that not all abilities, whether cognitive or motor- stunning, were eliminated from the individuals repertoire scorn having endured some form of brain damage. Gardner hypothesized that we possess more than one form of intelligence. The theory of multiple intelligences provides a more holistic view of the intelligence of humans.Gardner advocates that we may all attempt to develop each of these intelligences to our optimum level. However, we may be more adept in only certain of these intelligences. We may however, aspire through practice and development to improve in the be intelligences. The use of technology appeals to this view of intelligence in that Gardners theory acknowledges that cognition is not a linear process. The computer as a learning tool has enormous potential in developing the different forms of intelligences of Gardners theory. Hyperlinks to Multiple Intelligences Web Pages http//www. athena. ivv. nasa. gov/curric/weather/adptcty/multint. html picLearning Theories and the Brain What is Learning? Learning is the process by which we receive and process sensory data, encode such data as memories within the neural structures of our b rain, and recollect those memories for subsequent use. The variety of information stored within such memories is enormous, including such items as how to control your sphincter muscle until a socially appropriate occasion, how to identify mommy in a crowd, how to ride a bicycle, what is the shortest path to naans house without going near the lair of the wolf, what is the tune for van Beethovens Ode to Joy, and what a philosopher means when she says The cat is on the mat. All learning takes place within the brain, and as our understanding of the underlying structures and processes of the brain increases we can begin to apply that knowledge to improve our construction of learning environments. Our ability to describe and understand the basic processes by which our brain learns has been enhanced by recent technological developments and by the accumulation of long studies in human and animal populations. Of particular benefit has been the development of brain-imaging techniques that allow us to observe the operation of normal human brains during the performance of a variety of tasks. magnetised Resonance Imaging (MRI) and similar technologies have allowed researchers to map neural practise during sensory data processing and monitor the transfer of information into long-term memory.Researchers have also made great strides in determining the basic mechanisms that underlie the transmission of information within the brain. Such research on brain structure, neural transmitters, and the process by which memories are stored and retrieved have allowed the development of neuro-physiological models of learning. Although neuroscience has provided us with an increasingly rich and accurate descriptive theory of learning within the brain, we still need prescriptive theories of how to maximize the efficiency and readiness of human learning. To some extent all learning theories are prescriptive and seek to minimize the time required to transfer information into memory and m aximize the efficiency of retrieving that information.Our current knowledge of the brain, and our speculations regarding the evolutionary function of learning, should assist such prescriptive theories in designing learning environments that provide for maximum learning efficiency. In particular, prescriptive theories informed by our current knowledge of neuroscience should allow us to evaluate the role of multimedia in learning environments. We should also be able to maximize the impact of multimedia in such environments through application of learning theories and our knowledge of the human brain. Learning environments should not be construed simply as the traditional formal schoolroom within the context of institutionalized public education. Such environments occur within the workplace, the home, and other social institutions as communication and information technology keep ons to infiltrate Western society.We should also be aware that the use of multimedia will have an impact upon the development of the human brain, particularly when such techniques are used with children and adolescents whose brains are still developing and maturing. pic The Brain The three-pound universe that is our brain consists of more than 100 billion neurons and the associated structures that organize, nourish, and protect their functioning. Each neuron may have amid 5,000 and 50,000 connections to other neurons, forming a dense connective mat that allows the storage of enormous centers of information. It is important to remember that structures within the brain continue to develop until late adolescence and that neurons will continue to grow connections to other neurons passim adult life. pic Brain StructuresThe diagram above shows four basic structures in the brain that are important for bodily functions and for learning and memory. The brain stem is primarily concerned with basic survival functions and the regulation of body systems. The cerebellum is pertain in the perfor mance of automatic movement patterns (walking, running, touch-typing, and other physiologic skills that can become part of automatic procedural memory). The limbic system is liable for the processing of short-term memory into long-term memory as well as the generation and regulation of emotions. The cerebral cortex is the area of the brain in which sensory data is received and analyzed, decisions are made, and behavioral responses are activated.Information is received from the major sensory organs of the body eyes, ears, nose, tongue, and disrobe and is held briefly in sensory memory. The further processing of that information appears to be dependent upon the state of emotional arousal of the brain and the utility of such information for potential survival. Long-term memories are generated through the growth and open up of neural connections between those modular structures that contain the memory (Sylwester, 1995, pp. 89-90). The more often such structures are activated and the stronger the connections become to associated structures, the more easily such memories are retrieved and used by the brain in decision making and conscious thought.To some extent the driving forces behind the way our brain processes sensory input and makes decisions are the survival imperatives that accompanied human physical and cultural evolution. Our brains reflect the importance that survival places upon evaluating potential scourge situations, making a quick response, and focusing all body resources on support of those functions that may lead to continued survival. In high-threat situations the focus of the brain will be almost exclusively upon what is identified as the potential threat while the body shuts down relatively unimportant systems to concentrate on those involved in the fight-or-flight response.Low-threat situations allow the brain to sample and evaluate a broader spectrum of sensory input and to analyze such input for future use. Thus a large looming shadow in t he cave mouth tends to generate caution, prompting the body to shut down digestion, pump more adrenaline, and coordinate the cerebellum to handle the process of running while the cerebral cortex looks for places to embrace or make a stand. Strong negative emotion tends to wake the fight-or-flight physiological and mental responses that shut down high-level cognition. A grant should therefor be placed upon the reduction of those factors within a learning environment that give rise to negative emotions.At the same time, sensory input that does not receive attention is not available for processing through short-term into long-term memory. Clearly a balance must be struck between too much and too bantam stimulation in learning situations. Some stimulation and motivation is necessary for the learner to pay attention to the data that they are required to learn on the other hand too much stimulation (particularly in a negative context) is liable to create anger or dread as an emotio nal response, either of which can serve to reduce the amount of learning carried out within the environment. It appears that the limbic system plays an important part in the process of storing information as long-term memories.Those activities that provide an emotionally supportive environment may well have a positive effect upon the processing of information into long-term storage and subsequent convalescence of those memories. Group activities, co-operative learning, role-playing, and simulations tend to provide emotional support and emotional context for learning. Retrieval of long-term memories is enhanced when a large number of connections have been established between the neural modules that store such memories. To some extent our growing knowledge about the organization of the brain tends to support those theories of learning that can generally be labeled as constructivist. That is, situated knowledge that is connected to a large number of other memories is more apt to be re called than is unconnected knowledge that has been learned by rote.Because the process of creating connections between ideas and memories is essentially carried out through a process of rehearsal and review, learners should be encouraged to review knowledge that is being learned and attempt to build connections to that knowledge that is already easily retrieved from long-term memory. Such cognitive tools as narration, story-telling, constructing metaphors, and making comparisons are strategies that help to build and maintain connections. The construction of knowledge is essentially the growing of connections between the neural modules that contain individual memories. pic Implications for Learning Theory If the apparent symmetry between contemporary brain-based learning theories and constructivism is accurate, then basic guiding principles of constructivism should be used in designing learning environments.These principles include 1. Learning is a search for meaning. Therefore, lear ning must start with the issues around which students are actively trying to construct meaning. 2. Meaning requires understanding wholes as well as parts. Parts must be mute in the context of wholes. Therefore the learning process focuses on primordial concepts, not isolated facts. 3. In order to teach well, we must understand the mental models that students use to understand the world, and the assumptions that support those models. 4. The purpose of learning is to construct ones own meaning, not to have the right answers by repeating someone elses meaning.Learning is inherently inter-disciplinary, and the only worth(predicate) assessment of learning is assessment that is part of the learning process and that provides students with information on the quality of their learning. (On Purpose Associates, 1998b) Such learning environments should also be designed around the ideas that come forward from brain-based learning. That is, they should employ the three instructional techniques associated with brain-based learning orchestrated immersion, where learning environments are created that completey immerse students in a learning experience relaxed alertness, where an effort is made to eliminate fear while maintaining a highly challenging environment and active processing, where the learner consolidates and internalizes information by actively processing it (On Purpose Associates, 1998a).Learning environments constructed with these principles in mind will tend to be organized around thematic units featuring knowledge in depth and the exploration of projects that have real meaning for the participating learners. pic Implications for Multimedia How should we then use multimedia presentations of information to efficaciously learn in the context of current brain-based learning theory? The communications and information technology that constitutes contemporary multimedia platforms has some significant advantages in creating a learning environment, but there are some pitfalls that must be accounted for as part of the learning process. Multimedia, at its best, allows us to bring the real world to the learner through the use of sound and video.Such connection to the real world should serve as a factor in motivating students, and as a factor in providing them with surplus connections to other knowledge structures. At the same time, multimedia allows students to experience information through multiple modes of presentation. Such multi-modal learning should help to build connections within the learners brain if only because multiple modes of reception will engage different areas of the learners brain. Contemporary multimedia platforms allow a greater degree of learner control and more independence for the learner to undertake self-directed exploration of the material. Such self-directed learning is likely to be more meaningful and more connected to active knowledge structures within the learners brain.Therefore, we should see advantages for learn ing programs that include multimedia presentations. Learners should also gain from the possibility of self-paced instruction based upon contemporary multimedia learning technology. Whenever possible, immediate feedback should be built into a multimedia program to assist students in forming correct connections prior to reinforcing connections between new and old information incorporated within existing knowledge structures. Designers of multimedia instructional packages should take comfort in the strengths of multimedia, but they should also be aware of potential problems in using multimedia with learners.Although current multimedia technology allows excellent presentation in both video and audio modes, and provides some tactile feedback through the use of keyboards, there is little to offer students who need tactile experience ? multimedia is essentially a bimodal presentation strategy unless additional work is done to prepare material for students. Even the best multimedia program s cannot provide the total stimulation that natural environments provide? we have yet to incorporate smell or savour into such presentations, and tactile sensations are still limited. More importantly, there is a clear danger that multimedia programs may be used to permutation for interaction with other learners.We should not be seduced by technical virtuosity or cutting-edge visual and aural effects, there is still a need for human interaction and emotional support. Above all else, we should beware of the endeavor to substitute passive learning for active learning. Multimedia provides significant advantages in presenting information to learners, particularly if sufficient resources have been invested to create presentations that make full use of current technology. Presentation of information, no matter how technically sophisticated, is not enough learners must interact with content to construct their own meanings and comprise new knowledge into the dense web of neural connecti ons that is mind and memory. pic